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<a href="http://www.counterpunch.org/wise04242006.html" eudora="autourl">
http://www.counterpunch.org/wise04242006.html<br><br>
</a></font><font face="Times New Roman, Times" size=4><b>April 24,
2006<br><br>
</font><h1><font face="Times New Roman, Times" size=5 color="#990000"><b>
The Absurdity (and Consistency) of White
Denial</i></b></font></h1><font face="Times New Roman, Times" size=5><b>
What Kind of Card is Race?<br><br>
</b>By TIM WISE<br><br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=6 color="#990000">R</font>
<font face="Verdana" size=2>ecently, I was asked by someone in the
audience of one of my speeches, whether or not I believed that
racism--though certainly a problem--might also be something conjured up
by people of color in situations where the charge was inappropriate. In
other words, did I believe that occasionally folks play the so-called
race card, as a ploy to gain sympathy or detract from their own
shortcomings? In the process of his query, the questioner made his own
opinion all too clear (an unambiguous yes), and in that, he was not
alone, as indicated by the reaction of others in the crowd, as well as
survey data confirming that the belief in black malingering about racism
is nothing if not ubiquitous.<br><br>
It's a question I'm asked often, especially when there are several
high-profile news events transpiring, in which race informs part of the
narrative. Now is one of those times, as a few recent incidents
demonstrate: Is racism, for example, implicated in the alleged rape of a
young black woman by white members of the Duke University lacrosse team?
Was racism implicated in Congresswoman Cynthia McKinney's recent
confrontation with a member of the Capitol police? Or is racism involved
in the ongoing investigation into whether or not Barry Bonds--as he is
poised to eclipse white slugger Babe Ruth on the all-time home run
list--might have used steroids to enhance his performance?*<br><br>
Although the matter is open to debate in any or all of these cases, white
folks have been quick to accuse blacks who answer in the affirmative of
playing the race card, as if their conclusions have been reached not
because of careful consideration of the facts as they see them, but
rather, because of some irrational (even borderline paranoid) tendency to
see racism everywhere. So too, discussions over immigration,
"terrorist" profiling, and Katrina and its aftermath often turn
on issues of race, and so give rise to the charge that as regards these
subjects, people of color are "overreacting" when they allege
racism in one or another circumstance.<br><br>
Asked about the tendency for people of color to play the "race
card," I responded as I always do: First, by noting that the
regularity with which whites respond to charges of racism by calling said
charges a ploy, suggests that the race card is, at best, equivalent to
the two of diamonds. In other words, it's not much of a card to play,
calling into question why anyone would play it (as if it were really
going to get them somewhere). Secondly, I pointed out that white
reluctance to acknowledge racism isn't new, and it isn't something that
manifests only in situations where the racial aspect of an incident is
arguable. Fact is, whites have always doubted claims of racism at the
time they were being made, no matter how strong the evidence, as will be
seen below. Finally, I concluded by suggesting that whatever
"card" claims of racism may prove to be for the black and
brown, the denial card is far and away the trump, and whites play it
regularly: a subject to which we will return.<br><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=2 color="#990000"><b>Turning Injustice
into a Game of Chance: The Origins of Race as "Card"<br><br>
</b></font><font face="Verdana" size=2>First, let us consider the history
of this notion: namely, that the "race card" is something
people of color play so as to distract the rest of us, or to gain
sympathy. For most Americans, the phrase "playing the race
card" entered the national lexicon during the O.J. Simpson trial.
Robert Shapiro, one of Simpson's attorneys famously claimed, in the
aftermath of his client's acquittal, that co-counsel Johnnie Cochran had
"played the race card, and dealt it from the bottom of the
deck." The allegation referred to Cochran's bringing up officer Mark
Fuhrman's regular use of the 'n-word' as potentially indicative of his
propensity to frame Simpson. To Shapiro, whose own views of his client's
innocence apparently shifted over time, the issue of race had no place in
the trial, and even if Fuhrman was a racist, this fact had no bearing on
whether or not O.J. had killed his ex-wife and Ron Goldman. In other
words, the idea that O.J. had been framed because of racism made no sense
and to bring it up was to interject race into an arena where it was, or
should have been, irrelevant.<br><br>
That a white man like Shapiro could make such an argument, however,
speaks to the widely divergent way in which whites and blacks view our
respective worlds. For people of color--especially African Americans--the
idea that racist cops might frame members of their community is no
abstract notion, let alone an exercise in irrational conspiracy
theorizing. Rather, it speaks to a social reality about which blacks are
acutely aware. Indeed, there has been a history of such misconduct on the
part of law enforcement, and for black folks to think those bad old days
have ended is, for many, to let down their guard to the possibility of
real and persistent injury (1).<br><br>
So if a racist cop is the lead detective in a case, and the one who
discovers blood evidence implicating a black man accused of killing two
white people, there is a logical alarm bell that goes off in the head of
most any black person, but which would remain every bit as silent in the
mind of someone who was white. And this too is understandable: for most
whites, police are the helpful folks who get your cat out of the tree, or
take you around in their patrol car for fun. For us, the idea of
brutality or misconduct on the part of such persons seems remote, to the
point of being fanciful. It seems the stuff of bad TV dramas, or at the
very least, the past--that always remote place to which we can consign
our national sins and predations, content all the while that whatever
demons may have lurked in those earlier times have long since been
vanquished.<br><br>
To whites, blacks who alleged racism in the O.J. case were being absurd,
or worse, seeking any excuse to let a black killer off the hook--ignoring
that blacks on juries vote to convict black people of crimes every day in
this country. And while allegations of black "racial bonding"
with the defendant were made regularly after the acquittal in Simpson's
criminal trial, no such bonding, this time with the victims, was alleged
when a mostly white jury found O.J. civilly liable a few years later.
Only blacks can play the race card, apparently; only they think in racial
terms, at least to hear white America tell it.<br><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=2 color="#990000"><b>Anything but
Racism: White Reluctance to Accept the Evidence<br><br>
</b></font><font face="Verdana" size=2>Since the O.J. trial, it seems as
though almost any allegation of racism has been met with the same
dismissive reply from the bulk of whites in the U.S. According to
national surveys, more than three out of four whites refuse to believe
that discrimination is any real problem in America (2). That most whites
remain unconvinced of racism's salience--with as few as six percent
believing it to be a "very serious problem," according to one
poll in the mid 90s (3)--suggests that racism-as-card makes up an awfully
weak hand. While folks of color consistently articulate their belief that
racism is a real and persistent presence in their own lives, these claims
have had very little effect on white attitudes. As such, how could anyone
believe that people of color would somehow pull the claim out of their
hat, as if it were guaranteed to make white America sit up and take
notice? If anything, it is likely to be ignored, or even attacked, and in
a particularly vicious manner.<br><br>
That bringing up racism (even with copious documentation) is far from an
effective "card" to play in order to garner sympathy, is
evidenced by the way in which few people even become aware of the studies
confirming its existence. How many Americans do you figure have even
heard, for example, that black youth arrested for drug possession for the
first time are incarcerated at a rate that is forty-eight times greater
than the rate for white youth, even when all other factors surrounding
the crime are identical (4)?<br><br>
How many have heard that persons with "white sounding names,"
according to a massive national study, are fifty percent more likely to
be called back for a job interview than those with "black
sounding" names, even when all other credentials are the same
(5)?<br><br>
How many know that white men with a criminal record are slightly more
likely to be called back for a job interview than black men without one,
even when the men are equally qualified, and present themselves to
potential employers in an identical fashion (6)?<br><br>
How many have heard that according to the Justice Department, Black and
Latino males are three times more likely than white males to have their
vehicles stopped and searched by police, even though white males are over
four times more likely to have illegal contraband in our cars on the
occasions when we are searched (7)?<br><br>
How many are aware that black and Latino students are about half as
likely as whites to be placed in advanced or honors classes in school,
and twice as likely to be placed in remedial classes? Or that even when
test scores and prior performance would justify higher placement,
students of color are far less likely to be placed in honors classes (8)?
Or that students of color are 2-3 times more likely than whites to be
suspended or expelled from school, even though rates of serious school
rule infractions do not differ to any significant degree between racial
groups (9)?<br><br>
Fact is, few folks have heard any of these things before, suggesting how
little impact scholarly research on the subject of racism has had on the
general public, and how difficult it is to make whites, in particular,
give the subject a second thought.<br><br>
Perhaps this is why, contrary to popular belief, research indicates that
people of color are actually reluctant to allege racism, be it on the
job, or in schools, or anywhere else. Far from "playing the race
card" at the drop of a hat, it is actually the case (again,
according to scholarly investigation, as opposed to the conventional
wisdom of the white public), that black and brown folks typically
"stuff" their experiences with discrimination and racism, only
making an allegation of such treatment after many, many incidents have
transpired, about which they said nothing for fear of being ignored or
attacked (10). Precisely because white denial has long trumped claims of
racism, people of color tend to underreport their experiences with racial
bias, rather than exaggerate them. Again, when it comes to playing a race
card, it is more accurate to say that whites are the dealers with the
loaded decks, shooting down any evidence of racism as little more than
the fantasies of unhinged blacks, unwilling to take personal
responsibility for their own problems in life.<br><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=2 color="#990000"><b>Blaming the Victims
for White Indifference<br><br>
</b></font><font face="Verdana" size=2>Occasionally, white denial gets
creative, and this it does by pretending to come wrapped in sympathy for
those who allege racism in the modern era. In other words, while
steadfastly rejecting what people of color say they experience--in effect
suggesting that they lack the intelligence and/or sanity to accurately
interpret their own lives--such commentators seek to assure others that
whites really do care about racism, but simply refuse to pin the label on
incidents where it doesn't apply. In fact, they'll argue, one of the
reasons that whites have developed compassion fatigue on this issue is
precisely because of the overuse of the concept, combined with what we
view as unfair reactions to racism (such as affirmative action efforts
which have, ostensibly, turned us into the victims of racial bias). If
blacks would just stop playing the card where it doesn't belong, and stop
pushing for so-called preferential treatment, whites would revert back to
our prior commitment to equal opportunity, and our heartfelt concern
about the issue of racism.<br><br>
Don't laugh. This is actually the position put forward recently by James
Taranto, of the Wall Street Journal, who in January suggested that white
reluctance to embrace black claims of racism was really the fault of
blacks themselves, and the larger civil rights establishment (11). As
Taranto put it: "Why do blacks and whites have such divergent views
on racial matters? We would argue that it is because of the course that
racial policies have taken over the past forty years." He then
argues that by trying to bring about racial equality--but failing to do
so because of "aggregate differences in motivation, inclination and
aptitude" between different racial groups--policies like affirmative
action have bred "frustration and resentment" among blacks, and
"indifference" among whites, who decide not to think about race
at all, rather than engage an issue that seems so toxic to them. In other
words, whites think blacks use racism as a crutch for their own
inadequacies, and then demand programs and policies that fail to make
things much better, all the while discriminating against them as whites.
In such an atmosphere, is it any wonder that the two groups view the
subject matter differently?<br><br>
But the fundamental flaw in Taranto's argument is its
suggestion--implicit though it may be--that prior to the creation of
affirmative action, white folks were mostly on board the racial justice
and equal opportunity train, and were open to hearing about claims of
racism from persons of color. Yet nothing could be further from the
truth. White denial is not a form of backlash to the past forty years of
civil rights legislation, and white indifference to claims of racism did
not only recently emerge, as if from a previous place where whites and
blacks had once seen the world similarly. Simply put: whites in every
generation have thought there was no real problem with racism,
irrespective of the evidence, and in every generation we have been
wrong.<br><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=2 color="#990000"><b>Denial as an
Intergenerational Phenomenon<br><br>
</b></font><font face="Verdana" size=2>So, for example, what does it say
about white rationality and white collective sanity, that in 1963--at a
time when in retrospect all would agree racism was rampant in the United
States, and before the passage of modern civil rights legislation--nearly
two-thirds of whites, when polled, said they believed blacks were treated
the same as whites in their communities--almost the same number as say
this now, some forty-plus years later? What does it suggest about the
extent of white folks' disconnection from the real world, that in 1962,
eighty-five percent of whites said black children had just as good a
chance as white children to get a good education in their communities
(12)? Or that in May, 1968, seventy percent of whites said that blacks
were treated the same as whites in their communities, while only
seventeen percent said blacks were treated "not very well" and
only 3.5 percent said blacks were treated badly? (13)?<br><br>
What does it say about white folks' historic commitment to equal
opportunity--and which Taranto would have us believe has only been
rendered inoperative because of affirmative action--that in 1963,
three-fourths of white Americans told Newsweek, "The Negro is moving
too fast" in his demands for equality (14)? Or that in October 1964,
nearly two-thirds of whites said that the Civil Rights Act should be
enforced gradually, with an emphasis on persuading employers not to
discriminate, as opposed to forcing compliance with equal opportunity
requirements (15)?<br><br>
What does it say about whites' tenuous grip on mental health that in
mid-August 1969, forty-four percent of whites told a Newsweek/Gallup
National Opinion Survey that blacks had a better chance than they did to
get a good paying job--two times as many as said they would have a worse
chance? Or that forty-two percent said blacks had a better chance for a
good education than whites, while only seventeen percent said they would
have a worse opportunity for a good education, and eighty percent saying
blacks would have an equal or better chance? In that same survey, seventy
percent said blacks could have improved conditions in the
"slums" if they had wanted to, and were more than twice as
likely to blame blacks themselves, as opposed to discrimination, for high
unemployment in the black community (16).<br><br>
In other words, even when racism was, by virtually all accounts (looking
backward in time), institutionalized, white folks were convinced there
was no real problem. Indeed, even forty years ago, whites were more
likely to think that blacks had better opportunities, than to believe the
opposite (and obviously accurate) thing: namely, that whites were
advantaged in every realm of American life.<br><br>
Truthfully, this tendency for whites to deny the extent of racism and
racial injustice likely extends back far before the 1960s. Although
public opinion polls in previous decades rarely if ever asked questions
about the extent of racial bias or discrimination, anecdotal surveys of
white opinion suggest that at no time have whites in the U.S. ever
thought blacks or other people of color were getting a bad shake. White
Southerners were all but convinced that their black slaves, for example,
had it good, and had no reason to complain about their living conditions
or lack of freedoms. After emancipation, but during the introduction of
Jim Crow laws and strict Black Codes that limited where African Americans
could live and work, white newspapers would regularly editorialize about
the "warm relations" between whites and blacks, even as
thousands of blacks were being lynched by their white
compatriots.<br><br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=2 color="#990000"><b>From Drapetomania
to Victim Syndrome -- Viewing Resistance as Mental Illness<br><br>
</b></font><font face="Verdana" size=2>Indeed, what better evidence of
white denial (even dementia) could one need than that provided by
"Doctor" Samuel Cartwright, a well-respected physician of the
19th century, who was so convinced of slavery's benign nature, that he
concocted and named a disease to explain the tendency for many slaves to
run away from their loving masters. Drapetomania, he called it: a malady
that could be cured by keeping the slave in a "child-like
state," and taking care not to treat them as equals, while yet
striving not to be too cruel. Mild whipping was, to Cartwright, the best
cure of all. So there you have it: not only is racial oppression not a
problem; even worse, those blacks who resist it, or refuse to bend to it,
or complain about it in any fashion, are to be viewed not only as
exaggerating their condition, but indeed, as mentally ill (17).<br><br>
And lest one believe that the tendency for whites to psychologically
pathologize blacks who complain of racism is only a relic of ancient
history, consider a much more recent example, which demonstrates the
continuity of this tendency among members of the dominant racial group in
America.<br><br>
A few years ago, I served as an expert witness and consultant in a
discrimination lawsuit against a school district in Washington State.
Therein, numerous examples of individual and institutional racism
abounded: from death threats made against black students to which the
school district's response was pitifully inadequate, to racially
disparate "ability tracking" and disciplinary action. In
preparation for trial (which ultimately never took place as the district
finally agreed to settle the case for several million dollars and a
commitment to policy change), the school system's "psychological
experts" evaluated dozens of the plaintiffs (mostly students as well
as some of their parents) so as to determine the extent of damage done to
them as a result of the racist mistreatment. As one of the plaintiff's
experts, I reviewed the reports of said psychologists, and while I was
not surprised to see them downplay the damage done to the black folks in
this case, I was somewhat startled by how quickly they went beyond the
call of duty to actually suggest that several of the plaintiffs exhibited
"paranoid" tendencies and symptoms of borderline personality
disorder. That having one's life threatened might make one a bit paranoid
apparently never entered the minds of the white doctors. That facing
racism on a regular basis might lead one to act out, in a way these
"experts" would then see as a personality disorder, also seems
to have escaped them. In this way, whites have continued to see mental
illness behind black claims of victimization, even when that
victimization is blatant.<br><br>
In fact, we've even created a name for it: "victimization
syndrome." Although not yet part of the DSM-IV (the diagnostic
manual used by the American Psychiatric Association so as to evaluate
patients), it is nonetheless a malady from which blacks suffer, to hear a
lot of whites tell it. Whenever racism is brought up, such whites insist
that blacks are being encouraged (usually by the civil rights
establishment) to adopt a victim mentality, and to view themselves as
perpetual targets of oppression. By couching their rejection of the
claims of racism in these terms, conservatives are able to parade as
friends to black folks, only concerned about them and hoping to free them
from the debilitating mindset of victimization that liberals wish to see
them adopt.<br><br>
Aside from the inherently paternalistic nature of this position, notice
too how concern over adopting a victim mentality is very selectively
trotted out by the right. So, for example, when crime victims band
together--and even form what they call victim's rights groups--no one on
the right tells them to get over it, or suggests that by continuing to
incessantly bleat about their kidnapped child or murdered loved one, such
folks are falling prey to a victim mentality that should be resisted. No
indeed: crime victims are venerated, considered experts on proper crime
policy (as evidenced by how often their opinions are sought out on the
matter by the national press and politicians), and given nothing but
sympathy.<br><br>
Likewise, when American Jews raise a cry over perceived anti-Jewish
bigotry, or merely teach their children (as I was taught) about the
European Holocaust, replete with a slogan of "Never again!"
none of the folks who lament black "victimology" suggests that
we too are wallowing in a victimization mentality, or somehow at risk for
a syndrome of the same name.<br><br>
In other words, it is blacks and blacks alone (with the occasional
American Indian or Latino thrown in for good measure when and if they get
too uppity) that get branded with the victim mentality label. Not quite
drapetomania, but also not far enough from the kind of thinking that gave
rise to it: in both cases, rooted in the desire of white America to
reject what all logic and evidence suggests is true. Further, the
selective branding of blacks as perpetual victims, absent the application
of the pejorative to Jews or crime victims (or the families of 9/11
victims or other acts of terrorism), suggests that at some level white
folks simply don't believe black suffering matters. We refuse to view
blacks as fully human and deserving of compassion as we do these other
groups, for whom victimization has been a reality as well. It is not that
whites care about blacks and simply wish them not to adopt a self-imposed
mental straightjacket; rather, it is that at some level we either don't
care, or at least don't equate the pain of racism even with the pain
caused by being mugged, or having your art collection confiscated by the
Nazis, let alone with the truly extreme versions of crime and
anti-Semitic wrongdoing.<br><br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=2 color="#990000"><b>See No Evil, Hear
No Evil, Wrong as Always<br><br>
</b></font><font face="Verdana" size=2>White denial has become such a
widespread phenomenon nowadays, that most whites are unwilling to
entertain even the mildest of suggestions that racism and racial inequity
might still be issues. To wit, a recent survey from the University of
Chicago, in which whites and blacks were asked two questions about
Hurricane Katrina and the governmental response to the tragedy. First,
respondents were asked whether they believed the government response
would have been speedier had the victims been white. Not surprisingly,
only twenty percent of whites answered in the affirmative. But while that
question is at least conceivably arguable, the next question seems so
weakly worded that virtually anyone could have answered yes without
committing too much in the way of recognition that racism was a problem.
Yet the answers given reveal the depths of white intransigence to
consider the problem a problem at all.<br><br>
So when asked if we believed the Katrina tragedy showed that there was a
lesson to be learned about racial inequality in America--any lesson at
all--while ninety percent of blacks said yes, only thirty-eight percent
of whites agreed (18). To us, Katrina said nothing about race whatsoever,
even as blacks were disproportionately affected; even as there was a
clear racial difference in terms of who was stuck in New Orleans and who
was able to escape; even as the media focused incessantly on reports of
black violence in the Superdome and Convention Center that proved later
to be false; even as blacks have been having a much harder time moving
back to New Orleans, thanks to local and federal foot-dragging and the
plans of economic elites in the city to destroy homes in the most damaged
(black) neighborhoods and convert them to non-residential (or higher
rent) uses.<br><br>
Nothing, absolutely nothing, has to do with race nowadays, in the eyes of
white America writ large. But the obvious question is this: if we have
never seen racism as a real problem, contemporary to the time in which
the charges are being made, and if in all generations past we were
obviously wrong to the point of mass delusion in thinking this way, what
should lead us to conclude that now, at long last, we've become any more
astute at discerning social reality than we were before? Why should we
trust our own perceptions or instincts on the matter, when we have run up
such an amazingly bad track record as observers of the world in which we
live? In every era, black folks said they were the victims of racism and
they were right. In every era, whites have said the problem was
exaggerated, and we have been wrong.<br><br>
Unless we wish to conclude that black insight on the matter--which has
never to this point failed them--has suddenly converted to irrationality,
and that white irrationality has become insight (and are prepared to
prove this transformation by way of some analytical framework to explain
the process), then the best advice seems to be that which could have been
offered in past decades and centuries: namely, if you want to know about
whether or not racism is a problem, it would probably do you best to ask
the folks who are its targets. They, after all, are the ones who must, as
a matter of survival, learn what it is, and how and when it's operating.
We whites on the other hand, are the persons who have never had to know a
thing about it, and who--for reasons psychological, philosophical and
material--have always had a keen interest in covering it up.<br><br>
In short, and let us be clear on it: race is not a card. It determines
whom the dealer is, and who gets dealt.<br><br>
<b>Tim Wise</b> is the author of two new books:
<a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1932360689/counterpunchmaga">
White Like Me: Reflections on Race from a Privileged Son</a> (Soft Skull
Press, 2005), and
<a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/041595049X/counterpunchmaga">
Affirmative Action: Racial Preference in Black and White</a> (Routledge:
2005). He lived in New Orleans from 1986-1996. He can be reached at:
<a href="mailto:timjwise@msn.com">timjwise@msn.com</a><br><br>
* Personally, I have no idea whether or not Barry Bonds has used anabolic
steroids during the course of his career, nor do I think the evidence
marshaled thus far on the matter is conclusive, either way. But I do find
it interesting that many are calling for the placement of an asterisk
next to Bonds' name in the record books, especially should he eclipse
Ruth, or later, Hank Aaron, in terms of career home runs. The asterisk,
we are told, would differentiate Bonds from other athletes, the latter of
which, presumably accomplished their feats without performance enhancers.
Yet, while it is certainly true that Aaron's 755 home runs came without
any form of performance enhancement (indeed, he, like other black
ball-players had to face overt hostility in the early years of their
careers, and even as he approached Ruth's record of 714, he was receiving
death threats), for Ruth, such a claim would be laughable. Ruth, as with
any white baseball player from the early 1890s to 1947, benefited from
the "performance enhancement" of not having to compete against
black athletes, whose abilities often far surpassed their own. Ruth
didn't have to face black pitchers, nor vie for batting titles against
black home run sluggers. Until white fans demand an asterisk next to the
names of every one of their white baseball heroes -- Ruth, Cobb,
DiMaggio, and Williams, for starters -- who played under apartheid rules,
the demand for such a blemish next to the name of Bonds can only be seen
as highly selective, hypocritical, and ultimately racist. White privilege
and protection from black competition certainly did more for those men's
game than creotine or other substances could ever do for the likes of
Barry Bonds.<br><br>
</font><font size=3> <br><br>
</font><font face="Verdana" size=2 color="#990000"><b>NOTES<br><br>
</b></font><font face="Verdana" size=2>(1) There is plenty of information
about police racism, misconduct and brutality, both in historical and
contemporary terms, available from any number of sources. Among them, see
Kristian Williams, Our Enemies in Blue. Soft Skull Press, 2004; and
online at the Stolen Lives Project:
<a href="http://stolenlives.org/" eudora="autourl">
http://stolenlives.org</a>.<br><br>
(2) Washington Post. October 9, 1995: A22<br><br>
(3) Ibid.<br><br>
(4) "Young White Offenders get lighter treatment," 2000. The
Tennessean. April 26: 8A.<br><br>
(5) Bertrand, Marianne and Sendhil Mullainathan, 2004. "Are Emily
and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment in
Labor Market Discrimination." June 20. <br><br>
(6) Pager, Devah. 2003. "The Mark of a Criminal Record."
American Journal of Sociology. Volume 108: 5, March: 937-75.<br><br>
(7) Matthew R. Durose, Erica L. Schmitt and Patrick A. Langan, Contacts
Between Police and the Public: Findings from the 2002 National Survey.
U.S. Department of Justice, (Bureau of Justice Statistics), April
2005.<br><br>
(8) Gordon, Rebecca. 1998. Education and Race. Oakland: Applied Research
Center: 48-9; Fischer, Claude S. et al., 1996. Inequality by Design:
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163; Steinhorn, Leonard and Barabara Diggs-Brown, 1999. By the Color of
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(9) Skiba, Russell J. et al., The Color of Discipline: Sources of Racial
and Gender Disproportionality in School Punishment. Indiana Education
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(10) Terrell, Francis and Sandra L. Terrell, 1999. "Cultural
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(11) Taranto, James. 2006. "The Truth About Race in
America--IV," Online Journal (Wall Street Journal), January
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(12) The Gallup Organization, Gallup Poll Social Audit, 2001. Black-White
Relations in the United States, 2001 Update, July 10: 7-9.<br><br>
(13) The Gallup Organization, Gallup Poll, #761, May, 1968<br><br>
(14) "How Whites Feel About Negroes: A Painful American
Dilemma," Newsweek, October 21, 1963: 56<br><br>
(15) The Gallup Organization, Gallup Poll #699, October, 1964<br><br>
(16) Newsweek/Gallup Organization, National Opinion Survey, August 19,
1969<br><br>
(17) Cartwright, Samuel. 1851. "Diseases and Peculiarities of the
Negro Race," DeBow's Review. (Southern and Western States: New
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(18) Ford, Glen and Peter Campbell, 2006. "Katrina: A Study-Black
Consensus, White Dispute," The Black Commentator, Issue 165, January
5.<br><br>
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